Higher-order structure of mental toughness and the analysis of latent mean differences between athletes from 34 disciplines and non-athletes

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the higher-order structure of mental toughness and to examine differences in mental toughness between athletes and non-athletes. Participants of this study – 927 athletes and 931 non-athletes – completed a battery of questionnaires designed to assess four characteristics of mental toughness: hope, optimism, perseverance and resilience. The higher-order structure of mental toughness was found to be the same for both athletes and non-athletes. The latent mean differences analyses showed that athletes scored higher in mental toughness when compared to non-athletes. Taken together, these findings support the theoretical assumption that mental toughness is a higher-order construct encompassing different characteristics and that sport participation is associated with higher mental toughness.