Tourists' willingness to offset carbon emissions: a systematic review of empirical evidence

Abstract

Purpose Voluntary carbon offsetting (VCO) has emerged as a debated mechanism in sustainable tourism, allowing tourists to compensate for their carbon emissions. However, despite widespread stated willingness to participate, actual engagement remains low. The purpose of this study is to examine the determinants influencing participation in VCO schemes and the discrepancy between stated willingness to offset emissions and actual engagement. Design/methodology/approach Following PRISMA guidelines, this systematic review analyses 27 empirical studies involving 147,087 participants. The review synthesises key factors shaping VCO participation, including socioeconomic status, environmental awareness, travel patterns and the credibility of offset schemes. Findings The findings of this study identify a persistent gap between tourists' willingness to offset emissions and their actual behaviour. While VCO schemes can enhance environmental awareness, their voluntary nature and credibility concerns significantly limit their impact. The findings suggest that relying solely on VCOs is insufficient to achieve substantial emissions reductions. In addition, complementary policy measures, such as carbon levies and default opt-in mechanisms, could help bridge the distance from environmental intentions to behaviour. Research limitations/implications Although there is a clear difference between the willingness to offset carbon emissions and actual participation, differences in study designs, sample sizes, national contexts and the subjective nature of reported behaviours may influence the results. Originality/value This study provides a comprehensive review of empirical evidence on VCO participation and assesses the hesitation to engage in voluntary mechanisms, linking findings to consumer psychology and policy effectiveness. It provides actionable insights for policymakers, tourism operators and researchers, highlighting the need for regulatory interventions to enhance the effectiveness of carbon mitigation strategies in tourism.