Animal culture in non-human primates: a review

Abstract

In the last decades, a large number of cultural behaviours have been reported across different taxa. The main evidence is found in non-human primates. Nevertheless, even though its existence is broadly accepted in the scientific field, there is controversy regarding the nuances to define animal culture, its extent and if this type of culture is equal to the human one. In this bibliographic review, we analysed a total of 60 studies, following a modified version of the PRISMA 2020 declaration. We delve into the criteria defining culture and its interplay with genetics, ecology and behavioural evolution. We categorized for social learning and transmission the paths -vertical and horizontal-, mechanisms -such as social enhancement, response facilitation and imitation- and biases -such as sex, rank, prestige or bond-. In addition, we approach to the influence of tolerance or innovative and conformist behaviours; discuss about the factors explaining the stability of traditions; and present the most relevant statistical methods in animal culture research. This field of science has only just started to be studied. However, we can begin to glimpse the parallels between human culture and that of other primates, as well as the complex processes explaining the presence of animal culture in non-human primates.